Row based FPGAs Essay Example for Free

Row based FPGAs Essay It is a coarse grained one dimensional structure. The logic structure contains 16-bit registers, ALUs, Multipliers and SRAM blocks. Its interconnect structure consists of segmented 16-bit buses. There are two types of buses. Short buses provide local communication and long buses are interconnected by bus connectors. It is a subset of FPGA and an important class of programmable devices. It provides connectivity between the routing channels. It can be classified as ad-hoc and structured arrays (Weste Eshraghian, 2000 :401). Advantages Programming can be changed in real time. A computer program that executes on a PGA array is many faster than conventional machines. Disadvantages When the signal has to travel through a large number of cells, this can present in a substantial delay. The Xilinx Programmable Gate Array It is an example of an ad-hoc array. In the architecture of XC3000 series, an array of configurable logic blocks (CLBs) is embedded within a set of horizontal and vertical channels that contain routing. The configuration of the interconnect is achieved by turning on N-Channel past transistors. The CLB structure consists of two registers, number of muxes and a combinatorial function unit. At the junction of the horizontal and vertical routing channels, programmable switching matrices redirect routes. The switching matrices perform crossbar switching of the global interconnect which runs both vertically and horizontally. Programmable interconnect points interconnect a global routing to CLBs. Both PIPs and switching matrices are implemented as n-channel pass gates controlled by 1-bit RAM cells. Extra special long distance interconnect is used to route more important timing signals with a low skew (Weste Eshraghian,2000 :400). Initially, the board design is completed. Design then proceeds by mapping the logic design to the CLBs. Software then places and routes the CLBs by loading the internal state RAM with the codes needed to program the IOs, the CLBs and the routing. The design is then ready to be tested. Reprogrammable logic can be embedded within a larger system to aid the designer in easier system debug of a chip function. (Weste and Eshraghian,2000 ) (Weste and Eshraghian, 2000 ) Algotronix CAL1024 is an example of structured array. The architecture contains 1024 identical logic cells arranged in a 32-dy-32 matrix. At the boundary of the chip, 128 programmable I/O pins allow cascading of chips. The cell design consists of four multiplexers to route single bit signals in all possible directions. The muxers are controlled by 5 transistor static ram cells (Weste Eshraghian, 2000:403). In the IO pads only one pin is used for IO into and out of the array, but having the communicating chips automatically deal with two pins that are outputs. To achieve this, a three level logic scheme is used to sense when two outputs are driving each other via a contention circuit. (Weste and Eshraghian, 2000 ) (Weste and Eshraghian, 2000 ) PLA consists of an array of AND gates that can be programmed to generate any product of the input variables. The product terms are then connected to OR gates to provide a sum of products for the required Boolean function. In a PLA, each input goes through a buffer and inverter, so that both true and complement outputs are obtained. Each input and its complement are connected to inputs of each AND gates. The outputs of AND gates are connected to the inputs of each OR gate. The output of OR gate goes to an XOR gate where the other input can be programmed to receive a signal equal to either logic 1 or 0. The output may be complemented or left in its true form depending on the connection of one of the XOR gate inputs.

The Effect of Gangs in the Community

The Effect of Gangs in the Community How to define a gang has always been a matter of controversy. The relationship of the gang to its local community and the salience of race have been at the heart of academic and popular differences on the nature of gangs., according to the Gang Research. In the current essay I would like to describe the effects of gangs in the community and the effects of community policing. These two issues are important and cause many problems in society. Nowadays, the effect of gangs in community is negative and annoys people. People are disturbed by the groups of people trying to harm the society. Modern society faces many different problems, including terrorism and gangsters. People unite and form groups of particular interests, forming the gang. Gang is a group of people engaged in banditry. Gangsters are the people in the criminal law that have committed one of the most dangerous crimes against the foundations of public administration and society, as described in Gangs and their effect on community.  Criminal laws of various states do not always provide special offense thuggery, but many countries are close to this type of crime compounds (burglary, various kinds of violent acts, etc.).   Banditry actions Often there are referred to banditry actions of the various armed rebel groups and wars. For example, the used phrases like Chechen bandits, gang Makhno, etc. Use of the term among the bandits against members of such groups was intended to provide them common criminals rather than political opponents. It is also necessary to  note that participants in such anti-government groups may, together with political objectives and goals pursue personal enrichment (through robberies, ransom for the hostages, etc.), as stated in Gang research. The gang often refers to organized street gangs controlling a territory or a hood (neighborhood).  Street gangs are probably the most famous Bloods, MS-13, and Crips from South Central Los Angeles.  Members of street gangs are black with large majorities, followed by Latinos and Slavs.  They come from poor neighborhoods in North America and Central America.  Bloods and Crips have been the subject of many Hollywood movies depicting the life of gangster in Los Angeles.  Colors, with Dennis Hopper and Sean Penn are one of the first of its kind.  Other fraternities such as motorcycle clubs like the Hells Angels and the criminal organizations (Sicilian Mafia, Chinese triads and Japanese yakuza) are often referred to as gangs.  The first gangs emerged in Los Angeles in the black ghettos and then in other major cities like New York and Chicago, but Toronto and Montreal in Canada, to name a few.  Community negatively perceives the existence of the gangs and tries to avoid the m. The majority think that this problem has to be more effectively controlled by the government, as stated in Gangs and their effect on community. Environment and gang activity Quite often in environments suffering socially and economically provide gang members (mostly youth) a sense of belonging and protection against other gangs. Through this ritual, the violent practices of dress codes, a code of honor   Often where the prospects of gainful employment are low, gangs provide illegal means of earning a living.  Such as trafficking in narcotics or stolen property, extortion, assault They are very diverse and different, and sometimes become targets of choice for some ideological and extreme beliefs, which influence and motivate them, as described in Gang research. Unfortunately, innocent people can get caught in the crosshairs, so all those who live in the community where a gang is present are in greater danger as a result of the affect of the gang on their society., according to the Gang Research. Gangs in New York In the U.S., the term gang used for a street gang, back in the 1860s formed such criminal organizations, such as the Irish Boodles in New York City.  Pushed by the waves of immigration increased the formation of ethnically based street gangs.  In these Big Five were called classic bands, the Irishmen organized in the Whyos, Hudson Dusters, or Gophers, Italians in the Five Points Gang and Eastern European Jews in the Eastman Gang.  After 1900, there were essentially only the Eastman and Five Points left, as described in Gangs in America.   Almost all of these Big Five were from politicians of the Tammany Hall secured; gangs such as the Eastman Gang and the Whyos offered illegal services for a price list.  However, the Mafia and the Camorra in New York City had come.  About the Black Hand Gang, the Unione Sicilian was undermined.  The over-controlled Italian voices were certainly of interest of Tammany Hall, as stated in Gang research.  Funded by the alcohol prohibition were formed out of the five clans today known as La Cosa Nostra American Mafia, also called the Five Families.  Accordingly, it came to the dissolution of traditional street gangs of New York City to 1920.  While this entry focuses gangs in the United States, gangs are a recognized feature of urban life in areas as diverse as Johannesburg, Rio de Janiero, Paris, and Hong Kong., according to the official data. Gangs in Los Angeles A hotbed of banditry in the U.S., the city of Los Angeles, California.  In particular, the district South Los Angeles is the most dangerous region of town.  Here you fight the Bloods and Crips, the 38th Street Gang, the 18th Street Gang, the Mara Salvatrucha, the mutually Florencia 13 and other gangs.  In addition, there are always conflicts between African Americans and Latinos, as stated in Gangs in America.  All these gangs lay claim to a particular territory and have their own distinctive mark, such as colors, clothing, tattoos, hand signs and graffiti.  Historically, returns the current path from Los Angeles to increasing conflicts between blacks and whites in the course of the 1940s.  At that time, many blacks moved to Los Angeles, but could find no ghettos in the then appropriate accommodation.  The attempt from the break ghetto and to purchase in other parts of the city housing, put the local white residents against strong segregation efforts, ranging in some ca ses up to the inclusion of racial restrictions in the land book and much of the city for non-whites out of reach made.  Only in the south and southwest, where the residential areas of the lower middle class were white, blacks still could not find housing, but also here met with the resistance, as stated in Effects of Gangs. Mid to late 1940s was against this background, black residents from the borders of the Central Avenue-ghettos terrorized by gangs of white youths as the Spookhunters. In return, were founded the first black gangs like the businessmen, Slauson or flips, which are often offered the only protection against racist attacks, but also constitute a cultural or social home, as described in Gang research. Mark Twain on Gangs In his 1884 classic Huckleberry Finn, Mark Twain described the elaborate oath that the imaginative Tom Sawyer creates for members of his potential gang. Now well start this band of robbers and call it Tom Sawyers Gang. Everybody that wants to join has got to take an oath, and write his name in blood., as stated in the Chapter 2. In Huckleberry Finn. This shows the simple way of the creation of a gang, and the consequences can be much more complicated for both- the society and members of the gang. Todays members of the gang are criminals and they can not be distinguished in their actions from the other criminals. Community relation to Gangs Some people believe that the gangs have become a permanent feature of the urban landscape around the world, as described in Gang Research. Community strives to do anything possible to prevent gang crimes, to make the life safes and to create foundations that will be able to protect them. In the modern world cooperation and communication on the topic of gangs in extremely important, as today the number of crimes is very high and people feel less safe each day. Without the cooperation of the community and police it will be very difficult to protect the families and to live in safety. As a fact, an unsupervised lower-class peer group, with leadership, structure, and adherence to a local territory is formed in the society and make the living even more difficult and unforeseen, as described in Addressing Community Gang Problems. People are disturbed and nervous because of the gangs present in the cities, as these local groups are capable to do anything from the theft to murder. Scary stories about them and no clear changes of the government considering the gangs have not changes the situation for the better. The Effects of Community Policing The concept of community police officers (called Community Policing and Neighborhood Policing) is based on the assumption that an effective fight against crime and antisocial behavior requires close cooperation between the Police and members of the community.   Community Policing is both a philosophy and an organizational strategy that allows police and community residents to work closely together in new ways to solve the problems of crime, fear of crime, physical and social disorders, and neighborhood decay., as stated in The Effects of Community Policing and Technology on Index Crime Clearance Rates. Assumptions concept. The concept of community police patrols involves increasing the number of pedestrians  Police officers (and other similar services), they should be the members of the communities in which they work.  Building mutual trust and faith in the rule of law continues in through the establishment of direct contacts with the people-police should be open to citizens by showing patience, understanding and willingness to help, even if you entrusted to the problems have no direct connection with the violation of the law.  Conceptually, the police officer has to be more a sort of friend than a civil servant and representative government.  You can then count on the active participation of community members in efforts to combat crime.   The man goals of the community policing are: to bring community resources together to solve problems, decrease fear of crime, to listen to and address citizen concerns, to increase public confidence in the Police Department, to impact specific crime problems, and educate the public about its Police Department. Social scientists have differed on whether or not gangs necessarily exhibit criminal and delinquent activity. Some hold that gangs are fundamentally the product of delinquent subcultures; others believe gangs are a response to social disorganization. The United States National Youth Gang Center reports there are about 25,000 gangs in the United States, with nearly three quarters of a million members., according to the Gang Research. In the past, the view prevailed that the task of the Police is merely react-in a manner provided by law-the fact of the crime (the repressive function).  There was allowed only interference with pathology.  Today, there are beliefs that the role of police is not only to ensure safety, but also to concern for the quality of community life.  The first step should be here to determine the needs (problems) given community (for example, homelessness, importunate begging, alcohol abuse), and then preparing and implementing programs tailored to these specific needs.  It is desirable here also active as organizing talks drugs or encouraging young people to play sports. Community Policing (the police public service), and neighborhood policing (neighborhood) is a strategy and philosophy of policing based on the belief that the cooperation and support of the public can contribute to the control of crime.  The public can help identify what is suspicious and police have focused on existing problems.  The community ahs to become involved in the life of humanity, as there can be presented many crimes with the help of cooperation. Strategy When using the strategy of community policing officers and police departments, they are regarded as part of the public.  Cities and countries that have adopted this philosophy, directed more than traditional police departments to the concept of policing as a public service.  Community policing is usually more in the emphasis on walking patrol activity than that the police checked the place and also visited them in cars.  The basic idea is to build confidence and a sense of reciprocity between the police and the public.  This approach requires that the police were helpful, impartial and sensitive to the interests and concerns of others, and there is also known as a new form of police work. Although the police disagrees with the complainant (the developer), they should try to understand this problem.  The police would have to show empathy and participation, but not to be enrolled in the automatic way.  The police must also improve their planning, problem solving, organizati on, interpersonal communication, and most importantly in critical thinking, as described in Gangs, Gang membership, and comprehensive strategies.   A change in its police service to the public is how the police can identify what is truly high-quality service and how it subsequently provided to the public.  In the past, police always respond only to specific problems, and do so quite peculiar way and did not pay almost no attention to the proactive approach.  For this, the work of the police today is truly effective, and there is the need to:  take seriously the needs of the public, take into account the needs of police actions and programs, which are then focused on the public. It is in this sense that the police are becoming more receptive to public needs and can also better understand how their work has an impact on society.  It is said that this philosophy is created by Tom Potter, former police chief in Portland, Oregon, when a young policeman patrolling activities are performed.  Other legends were Sir Robert Peel, who came up with nine principles, on whom stands a modern police work. Community policing Community policing- are the social attitudes in a system of relationships between people, the rules of mutual behavior and dormitories, the applicable laws, customs and traditions, and moral norms.  Public order is a whole set of systems of social relations, which develops as a result of social norms: law, morality, norms of public organizations, non-legal norms of customs, traditions and rituals. Public order and public safety are the main objects of protection in the work of the interior.  The socio-legal categories, covering specific sphere of social relations, are characterized by a number of features that define the content of the activities of internal affairs for the protection (security) of these relations, as described in The Effects of Community Policing and Technology on Index Crime Clearance Rates.   First, public order and safety apply to all citizens without exception, and from birth until death.  Second, public order and public security tend to focus on elementary actions, deeds and rules of human behavior.  They occur openly and publicly, and usually they are understood by others.  Third, public order and safety are governed by the law as well as other social and technical norms (morality, customs, traditions, and even fashion).  Fourth, in the sphere of public order and safety annually there are made a huge number of offenses, the tens of millions.  And all offenders, and that much of the population, one way or another can be subjected to the forced exposure of the police.  Fifth, in the field of public order and safety there is circulation of objects and subjects of high risk: the acquisition, storage, use, transportation and civil service firearms, explosive and highly toxic substances, radioactive isotopes, etc. Therefore, licensing and permitting activities o f the Interior  exercising state supervision and control in this area, allows preventing and suppressing the violation of the rules and thereby minimizing the occurrence of serious implications, as a rule, in violation of relevant rules, standards and requirements.  Sixth, with the sphere in question that is closely connected with such dangerous anti-social phenomena as drug addiction, alcoholism, prostitution, vagrancy and begging. That is why, in some cities there are special units, the so-called morality police.  Seventh, in the sphere of public order and public safety are regularly held various mass public events with a large concentration of people in different rooms or in a limited area, which often poses a threat to life and health, the normal functioning of organizations.  These include political (rallies, marches, demonstrations), economic (picketing, hunger strikes), cultural and entertainment (festivals, concerts, days, cities), sports (Olympics, football and hock ey competitions), religious and other public events.  Their implementation requires a great deal of organizational work of the interior, bringing order to ensure order and security of considerable forces and means of the police and interior troops. Community policing is described as the state of social relations, which enforced the law and other legal rules, one of the components of the social order.  This is the state of the actual settlement of social relationships, qualitative expression of the rule of law.  In addition to compliance with the law enforcement in society, it is ensured by the customs, norms and morals, the internal rules of organization, etc. The rule of law is characterized by a level of legality in the state and the degree of realization of the rights and freedoms of citizens, as well as their performance of public authorities and duties conferred by law, as stated in The Effects of Community Policing and Technology on Index Crime Clearance Rates.   Solving the crimes in the local areas has always been challenging. When community policing is practiced in conjunction with some investigation variables, it has significant mixed (positive and negative) interaction effects on murder and robbery clearance rates., as described in The Effects of Community Policing and Technology on Index Crime Clearance Rates. Nowadays, technology has positive effects in investigation and in doing the corresponding research.   Positive interaction effect with community policing on different issues is beneficial for the society. Proper management of the situation and involvement of people who care about their safety is helping a lot, when the case is connected with the gangs. There is created a framework and the detection of crimes becomes more real and much quicker, and as well, this helsp to pertain to terrorism and national security Structure of Community policing Structure of the Community policing are the  legal organization of society (laws and legitimize their government agencies and non-state actors and citizens);  relationship and communication in society;  and certain (normative) order of these relationships and bonds (clear definition of the status of members of their subjective rights and legal duties, powers).   Community policing can be classified according to the territorial coverage (the rule of law in the state, city, etc.), as well as branches of law and legal coverage (constitutional, administrative, financial, etc.), according to U.S. Department of Justice Office of Community Oriented policing Services.   Classifications of the community policing: Symptoms: to allocate the following signs of enforcement:  Certainty.  Community policing is based on specific formal-legal regulations.  System: community policing is a system of relations based on a single essence of law, the prevailing form of ownership, the system of economic relations and provides a unified force of state power.  Organization: community policing occurs when there are organizing activities of the state, its bodies. State warranty: the existing rule of law is guaranteed by the state, protects them from violations.  Stability: arising under state law and ensures the rule of law is quite stable. Unity: based on common political and legal principles that will ensure the unity of the state and the rule of law, order for the whole country.  All these components are equally guaranteed by the state, any of the violations are considered violations and repressed by state coercion. It is obvious that the gangs affect the community in different ways, as it depends on where a person lives. According to the survey done by the  National Criminal Justice Reference Service, the specific results of a 2008 show that the gangs in the community cause: rise in violent crime and  drug  related arrests and rise in robbery and  homicide  cases, as described in Effects of Gangs. Considering these facts, there is a considering influence from the gangs on community, especially there is a negative effect, which leads to the increased crime and also to the higher risk for the people to get hurt. The gangs make people feel danger and insecurity in the community, as no one can protect people from the gangs if the measures are not taken. Conclusion All in all, it can be said that there are many issues that disturb the society and there is a considerable influence from the gangs. The effects of gangs in the community and the effects of community policing take place in the society, but there have to be taken more proper measures to ensure safety and living in comfort for the people. As a fact, the best way is to eliminate the groups of people who harm the society. Consequently, there has to be tighter cooperation between the community and police, there has to be developed the new of communication, etc. There have to be present the newest technologies that will allow police to take proper actions and to know everything in advance. Nowadays, the importance of the national security has become one of the main issues, as different circumstances lead people to committing different crimes, either in groups or individually. This problem has to be revised at the state level and its importance does not have to be underestimated under any c ircumstances.

Urinary Tract Infection (UTI): Causes and Treatment

Urinary Tract Infection (UTI): Causes and Treatment Urinary tract is the most common organ to experience infection which occurs from neonates to geriatrics. It account for 8.3 million doctor visit each year and represent the second most common infection in the human body (Sumaira Zareef et al.,2009). By the advancement of age, the attack of UTI increases in men due to prostate enlargement and neurogenic bladder. Recurrent infections are common and will lead to irreversible damage of the kidneys, which result in renal hypertension and renal failure in severe cases. In community, women are more prone to develop UTI and 20% of women experience a single episode of UTI during their lifetime and 3% of women may have more than one episode of UTI per year. Pregnancy also makes them more sensitive to infection. Catheter-associated UTI is a trenchant problem and bacteriuria is found in 5% of catheterised patients (Das R N et al., 2006). Urinary tract infection refers to the presence of microbes in the urinary tract. The frequency of pathogens v aries upon hospitalization, sexual intercourse, and catheterization (Getenet B et al., 2011). About 150 million people are diagnosed for having urinary tract infection with a very high risk of morbidity and mortality (Raza S et al., 2011). Urinary tract infection is found more in women when compared with men the reason may be due to anatomical structure or because of the urothelial mucosa attachment to the muco polysaccharide lining or due to other factors (Tampekar et al., 2006). Urinary tract infection is second only to respiratory tract in acquiring microbial infections (Raza S et al., 2011). Classification of Urinary Tract Infection: Urinary tract infection may be classified as upper urinary tract infection and lower urinary tract infection. According to the infected site, if its bladder then its called cystitis, if the bacterium is in the kidney then its called pyelonephrites, if its in urine the term bacteriuria is used (Getenet B et al., 2011). Manifestation of genitourinary tract infection vary from mild symptomatic cystitis to pyelonephrites and finally to septicaemia. Pyelonephrites are the sequelae of untreated or inadequately treated lower UTI and the most common cause of hospital admission during pregnancy and which lead to preterm labour(Jamie et al .,2002). Urinary tract infections are further divided into complicated and uncomplicated infections. Uncomplicated infections are those with no prior instrumentations and complicated infections are those that have done instrumentations such as indwelling, urethral catheters and it include structural and functional abnormalities (Getnet B et al., 2011). Again UTI is classified as community acquired and hospital acquired (nosocomial). In community acquired UTI single species of bacteria is found and the organisms are Escherichia coli, P.mirabilis, Pseudomonas. Hospital acquired UTI is often due to multi drug resistant strain in this similar organism but greater preponderance of Streptococci or Klebsiella is seen (Sujit K Chaudhuri., 2001). Defnition of the precise terms in Urinary Tract Infection: Significant bacteriuria It is defined as the presence of 100000 bacteria per mL of urine. Asymptomatic bacteriuria It is defined as significant bacteriuria in infected patients with the absence of symptoms Cystitis It is defined as a syndrome of frequency, dysuria, urgency in which the infection is limited to bladder and urethra. Urethral syndrome In Urethral syndrome a conventional pathogen is present and its a syndrome of dysuria, frequency in the absence of significant bacteriuria. Acute pyelonephrites It is an acute infection in one or both the kidneys. Chronic pyelonephrites It may be due to the continuous excretion of bacteria from kidney or the recurring infection of the renal cell or due to a specific pathology of both kidneys. Relapse and reinfection Relapse is defined has the recurrence of infection by the same organism which intiated original infection. Reinfection is defined as the recurrence of infection by a new organism (Roger walker et al., 2003). Several studies have demonstrated geographical variability of Pathogens occurrence among UTI inpatient and outpatient is limited by the predominance of gram negative organisms. The most frequent pathogen isolated is Escherichia coli which accounts for about 50% to 90% of all uncomplicated infections (Tampekar et al., 2006). In complicated urinary tract infection and hospitalized patients, organisms such as Enterococcus faecalis and highly resistant gram negative rods including Pseudomonas are most common (Getenet B et al., 2011). Aetiology and microbiology: The most common causative organism of uncomplicated UTI is Escherichia coli accounting more than 85% cases, followed by staphylococcus saprophyticus (coagulase-negative staphylococcus) accounting to nearly 15%. The pathogens in complicated UTI or nosocomical infections are Escherichia coli accounting 50%, Proteus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Enterobacter, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococci and Enterococci (Barbara et al., 2008). A very rare cause of urinary tract infection includes anaerobic bacteria and fungi and sometimes viruses which are detected by culture and nucleic acid amplification method. Abnormalities of the urinary tract such congenital anomalies of ureter, renal stones, enlargement of prostrate in men are other causes for urinary tract infection (Roger walker et al., 2003). Pathophysiology of UTI: (Barbara et al., 2008) The urinary tract includes two pairs of kidneys, ureter, bladder and urethra. Urinary tract infection are defined as infections at any level of the urinary tract which include, Upper urinary tract infection (Pyelonephrites) Lower urinary tract infection ( Cystitis, Urethritis) Combination of above two The bacteria causing UTIs originate from bowel flora of the host. It can be acquired via three possible routes Ascending Haematogenous Lymphatic pathways In females the short length of the urethra and proximity to the perirectal area lead to the colonization of bacteria. The organisms enter the bladder from urethra and multiply and can ascend the ureters and ascend to the kidneys. Factors that determine the development of urinary tract infections are The size of the inoculums Virulence of the microorganisms Competency of the natural host defense mechanisms. Important virulence factors of bacteria are their ability to adhere to urinary epithelial cells by fimbriae. Others include haemolysin, a cytotoxic protein produced by bacteria which lyses a large range of cells including erythrocytes, monocytes, and polymorph nuclear leukocytes. Clinical presentation: Pain or burning when you using bathroom Fever, tiredness or shakiness An urge to use the bathroom often and often Pressure in the lower belly Urine that smells bad and looks cloudy or reddish Nausea or back pain Lower urinary tract infection Dysuria, urgency, nocturia, Increased frequency of urination Upper urinary tract infection Fever, flank pain, vomiting malaise. Clinical investigation: (Roger walker et al., 2003) Laboratory diagnosis is successful when an uncontaminated urine sample is obtained for microscopy and culture. The respective patients need to instruct to produce mid stream urine sample (MSU) and then its collected into a sterile aliquot and then transferred into the specimen pot and finally is submitted to the laboratory. Dipsticks It is a rapid testing for urinary blood, nitrites, proteins and leukocyte esterase. The colour changes are assessed. Microscopy It is the first step in the diagnosis of urinary tract infections. Urine is placed on a slide and then covered with a cover slip and is examined under lens 40x. Culture The patients urine is streaked in agar medium and is incubated for 24 hours at 370C and identify the single bacterial species which as initiated the particular infection. Treatment of UTI: Non specific treatment Urinary tract infected patients are advised to drink a lot of fluids, this practice is on the basis that the bacteria is removed by frequent bladder emptying. Urinary analgesics such sodium citrate which will alkanize urine is used with antibiotics as an adjunct therapy (Roger walker et al., 2003). Pharmacological treatment of UTI Antibiotics are commonly used in Urinary tract infections. The modes of action of antibiotics may be, Inhibition of Bacterial Cell Wall Synthesis Inhibition of Cytoplasmic Membrane Function Inhibition of Nucleic Acid Synthesis Inhibition of Protein Synthesis Control of Microbial Enzymes Substrate Competition with an Essential Metabolite (Barar F. S. K., 2007) UTI are mainly treated with broad spectrum Cephalosporins, Fluroquinolones, and Aminoglycosides. Cephalosporins are cell wall inhibitors which are commonly used for treating urinary tract infections caused by Gram negative organisms. It include Cefotaxime, Cephradine, Ceftazidime etc. Flouroquinolones act by inhibiting the activity of DNA gyrase and topo isomerase which are the enzymes needed for bacterial DNA replication and it includes Ciprofloxacin, Ofloxacin, Enoxacin. Aminoglycoside act by inhibiting bacterial protein synthesis it include Gentamycin, Kanamycin, Amikacin etc (Farhat Ullah et al., 2009). Oral therapy in urinary tract infection is Sulphonamides example (TMP-SMX) PenicillinS which include Ampicillin, Amoxicillin- clavulanic acid. Cephalosporins example Cephalexin, Cephadrine. Tetracyclines example Doxycycline, Minocycline. Fluroquinolones example Levofloxacin, Nitrofurantine. Parentral therapy is done with Carbapenems example Imipenem-Cilastatin. Aminglycosides example Amikacin, Gentamycin (Barbara et al., 2008). 2.9 Treatments of infections of urinary tract: (S.D Seth et al., 1999) Treatment of Lower Urinary Tract Infections Single-dose Trimethoprim -Sulphamethoxazole (400mg+2g) are used to treat acute uncomplicated episode of cystitis. Acute urethritis can be treated with Doxycycline 100 mg twice a day for 7 days. Single dose therapy must be restricted in patients where symptoms are present for less than 10 days. In more complicated cases seven days therapy with antibiotics should be given and alternatively broader spectrum antibiotics are used. Treatment of upper Urinary Tract Infections 10-14 day course of Trimethoprim-Sulphamethoxazole, Trimethoprim in a single dose, Cephalosporins, or Aminoglycoside gives adequate therapy. If recurrence occurs then the patient should be investigated for calculi and other urologic disease. Treatment of Urinary Tract Infections during Pregnancy Acute cystitis during pregnancy is treated with Amoxicillin, Nitrofurantoin,or Cephalosporin for 4 days. Acute pyelonephtites is managed generally with Cephalosporin or extended spectrum Penicillin. Treatment for Recurrent Urinary Tract Infections In this a drug capable of achieving high tissue concentration is needed.7-14 days high treatment is given. Treatment of Asymptomatic Infections Asymptomatic bacteriuria is confirmed by a minimum of two positive cultures. An oral therapy for 1 week with the most sensitive agent is given primarly. Treatment for Catheter Associated Urinary Tract Infection Asymptomatic bacteriuria in catheterized patients is not treated if they are not at a high risk of sepsis. Treatment for Prostatitis The pathogen found in this is mainly Gram Negative Bacilli. Trimethoprim- Sulphamethoxazole, Erythromycin, Ciprofloxacin can penetrate prosthetic tissue and are mostly effective. If Cocci are found cloxacillin may be given. Chemoprophylaxis of Urinary Tract Infections It is indicated to patients with a very frequent symptomatic infection. A single dose Trimethoprim-Sulphamethoxazole (80mg TMP+400 mg SMZ) or Nitrofurantoin (50 mg) is found to be effective. Drug resistance: (Michelle.A.Clark et al., 2012), (Barar F.S.K 2010). Bacteria are said to be resistant to an antibiotic if the maximal level of that antibiotic which can be tolerated by the host does not alter the bacterial growth. Bacterial resistance to antibiotics may be either Natural or Acquired. Natural resistance Natural resistance is genetically determined and it depends upon the absence of a metabolic process which is affected by the respective bacteria. Acquired resistance Acquired resistance is the resistance which is seen in a previously sensitive bacterial pathogen and it involves a very stable genetic change which is heritable from one generation to another generation. The common mechanism is by mutation, adaptation, or by the development of multiple drug resistance which is as a result of transfer of genetic material from bacteria to bacteria by transformation, transduction, or conjugation. Microbial species which are normally responsive to a particular drug may develop more virulent, resistant strains due to, Genetic alterations Spontaneous mutations of DNA DNA transfer of drug resistance B) Altered expression of proteins in organism Modification of target site Decreased accumulation Enzymtic Inactivation A) Genetic alterations Acquired antibiotic is due to the temporary or permanent alteration of organisms genetic information. Spontaneous mutation of DNA Chromosomal alteration occurs by insertion or substitution of one or more nucleotides within the genome. The mutation may be lethal to the cells. If the cells survive it will replicate and transmit its mutated properties to other cells. DNA transfer of drug resistance It occurs due to DNA transfer from one bacterium to other. Resistance gene are plasmid mediated and can be incorporated into host bacterial DNA. B) Altered expression of proteins in organism It occurs by variety of mechanisms, such as a lack of or alteration in target site, increased efflux of the drug or by the expression of antibiotic inactivating enzymes. Modification of target sites The change in the antibiotic target site through mutation can lead to resistance. Example, S pneumonia resistance to beta lactums involves alteration in one or more of major bacterial penicillin binding protein. Decreased accumulation If the drug is unable to attain access to the site of its action to kill the organisms resistance confers. Enzymic inactivation The ability to destroy antibiotic agent by the pathogen can confer resistance. Antibiotic inactivating enzymes include a) Beta lactamases (Hydrolytically inactivate beta lactum ring of penicillin) b) Acetyl transferases (Transfer an acetyl group to antibiotics) c) Esterases (Hydrolyze the lactone ring of macrolides) Antibiotic tolerance: The term antibiotic tolerance is used when the antibiotic merely inhibits its multiplication and growth but no longer kills the microbial pathogen. Tolerant microbial pathogen starts to grow after antibiotics are stopped. Cross resistance: It is defined as a phenomenon in which bacteria resistant to one drug is resistant to another drug to which the bacteria is not exposed before. Examples are Neomycin and Kanamycin. Prevention of drug resistance: (K.D Tripathy 2006) Indiscriminate and prolonged use of antibiotics should be stopped it will minimise resistant strains so there will be less chance to preferentially propagate Rapidly acting and narrow spectrum antibiotics should be preferred. Broad spectrum is used when a proper one cannot be determined When prolonged therapy is needed use combination of Anti microbial agents Treatment should be intensively done for the infections by organism which develops resistance Example, Staphylococcus aureus. Evaluation of urinary tract pathogen and principles of antibiotic dosing: (Michelle.A.Clark et al., 2012), (Sharma H L et al 2011) The traditional way for the evaluating urinary tract pathogens is urine culture and antibiotic susceptibility testing. The major drawback of current microbiological analysis is time lapse of more than a day (Vesna Ivancic et al., 2008). The five important characteristic which influence frequency of dosing of all antibiotics are, Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) It is the lowest concentration of antibiotic that inhibit bacterial growth. To have effective therapy the clinically obtainable antimicrobial concentration should be greater than MIC. Minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) It is the lowest concentration of antibiotic agent that results in 99.9% decline in colony count after incubation. Concentration dependent killing effect [CDKE] Antibiotics are most effective when higher blood concentration is reached periodically. These bactericidal antibiotics are said to be concentration -dependent killing (CDK). In drugs whose killing action is CDK the extent and rate of killing increases with increase in drug concentration. Examples Amino glycosides, Fluroquinolones. Time dependent killing effect [TDKE] Antibiotics are most effective when the blood concentrations are maintained above the minimum inhibitory concentration for the maximum long duration possible. These bactericidal antibiotics exhibit time -dependent killing (TDK). In drugs whose killing action is (TDK) the activity of antibiotics continue as long as serum concentration are maintained above the minimum inhibitory concentration. Examples Vancomycin, Beta Lactums. Post -antibiotic effect [PAE] A suppression of bacterial growth which is persistent after a brief exposure to antibiotics agents is said to be post-antibiotic effect. In post antibiotic effect the suppression or inhibition of bacterial growth is found even when the bacterial agent is no longer present or its concentration is very less than MIC. Examples of drugs which show significant PAE are Tetracycline, Amino glycosides. The aetiology of UTI and the antibiotic susceptibility of uropathogens have been changing over the past decade. The extensive uses of antibiotics have invariably resulted in the development of resistance which has become major problem in recent years. Antibiotic treatment which are of shorter duration than required, and the treatment administered without considering antibiotic and organism sensitivity as resulted in more resistance in bacterial strains (Mohammed Akram et al., 2007), (Eshwarappa M et al., 2011). To find out the most effective empirical treatment, investigating the epidemiology of UTI is a fundamental approach to guide the expected interventions (Getnet B et al., 2011). Since the distribution of microbial pathogens and their susceptibility is variable regionally and it is necessary to have a knowledge of uropathogens and sensitivity in a particular setting (Muhammed Naeem et al., 2010). The selection of antimicrobial agents require the following knowledge, The organisms identity The organisms susceptibility to particular agent The site of the infection Patient factors The safety of the agent The cost of therapy However, in critically ill patients need immediate treatment i.e. the therapy is initiated soon after specimens for laboratory analysis have been obtained before the culture result and selection of drug is influenced by the site of infection and patients history or by the association of particular organism Prevention and prophylaxis: (Roger Walker et al). Cranberry juice: It has been thought beneficial for the prevention of urinary tract infections. The benefit of drinking cranberry juice instead of antibiotics has reduced resistance of bacteria. Antibiotic prophylaxis: It is indicated to patients who are having reinfections. If the reinfection is after sexual intercourse then after intercourse a single dose of antibiotics is taken. In other cases low dose is beneficial. Patient counselling of UTI: Drinking plenty of clear liquids will keep urine diluted. Good personal hygiene following urination and bowel movements. Cleaning self front to back from vagina to anus. Urinate frequently to wash out bacteria that may be present, avoid holding urine for prolonged periods of time. Urinate after intercourse to wash out bacteria that may have been introduced into the urethra. Avoid wearing tight jeans, wet bathing suites. Present scenario of UTI: New studies reveal that the risk of urinary tract infection is high among boys who has not circumcised and had a visible urethral meatus. Another line of UTI research has indicated that women who are non-secretors of certain blood group antigens may be more prone to recurrent urinary tract infections because the cells lining the vagina and urethra may allow bacteria to attach more easily. Scientists have worked out an effective new approach to treat urinary tract infections (UTIs) by dumping antibiotics. It involves so-called FimH antagonists, which are non antibiotic compounds and would not contribute to the growing problem of pathogens resistant to antibiotics. Barriers to integration: Refugees in new countries Barriers to integration: Refugees in new countries Background 1.1 Settlement of Refugees in Australia Australia has been settling refugees for more than a century. As per official records, settlement history begins in 1839, marking the arrival of Lutherans. Nevertheless, Australia’s modern approach to refugee settlement began with a new national refugee policy in 1977. It has, now, become a designated resettlement country for refugees and it receives a designated number of refugees on annual basis as on the agreement with UNHCR. According to the best estimates available, 2009-10 was the year in which Australia, since becoming an independent nation, passed the 750,000 mark in its intake of refugees and humanitarian entrants. In recent years, the incidents of persecution, conflict, generalized violence and human rights violation have significantly increased in Democratic Republic of the Congo, Mali, Syria, Iran, Afghanistan, Sri Lanka, and the border between Sudan and South Sudan. Surprisingly Australia has reduced its Refugee and Humanitarian Program to 13, 750 places while there is a considerable gap between resettlement needs and available places worldwide. At this point, it is important to acknowledge current refugee settlement issues in Australia. In general, settlement issues fall into four main categories as follows: In addition to these main categories, if we go further deeper into the context, it is obvious to see another horizon of challenges fall into following areas: Family and Youth Legal and Financial Community Relations Securing a meaningful employment is a truly challenging task among refugees mainly because of their lack of knowledge about Australian work place culture, no prior work experience in Australia, inadequate services to support employment transitions, discrimination, racism, lack of English proficiency, inability to get access to job market, and problems in recognizing overseas skills, experience and qualification. Finding an affordable house becomes a serious issue due to the competition in private rental market. Renting and retaining the house have equal consideration as finding the house. Discrimination and racism appear again as opposing factors. Moreover, financial hardship of refuges, size of families, their lack of Australian rental history, and unawareness about tenancy rights and responsibilities can be said as reasons for housing difficulties during their settlement. Educational barriers are different system of education, different languages, inadequate induction and support, high illiteracy among refugee communities, disruption of schooling for young people and enrollment based on age rather than knowledge. Inconsistency in policies and practices results in ignoring needs of young people with disrupted education. Health issues are normally caused by family separation, their prior experience and trauma, lack of social networks and consequent isolation. All of the above issues (Employment, Housing and Education) negatively affect the health and mental wellbeing of these communities. We can notice a great demand for interpreters in health sector since they are often required in counseling and consultation. Integrational conflicts and cultural shocks attempt to damage family relations and people’s values. For an example, younger ones adapt more readily and it leads to misunderstanding and confusion within families. Parenting becomes more challenging. Cultural clashes affect spousal relationships in a negative way and ends up in separation and divorces. Domestic violence and family breakdowns seem to be common in refugee communities. On the other hand, there are serious concerns about unaccompanied minors and single mothers with many children. When it comes to youth, due to their prior refugee experience, limited education or work experience, cultural dislocation and loss of established social networks lead them to frustration. Resulting frustration has its own dangerous consequences such as involving in illegal activities. Most of the refugees who come from war torn countries see the police as an oppressive authority. This viewpoint often creates misunderstanding between police and refugee communities. Racism does its part to damage this relationship worse than we assume. Refugees are in need for legal advices regarding their visa process, financial arrangements and documentations. Cultural incompetency of legal advisers and refugee’s lack of knowledge of legal systems can be highlighted under this area. Community relations between refugee communities and host communities are influenced by myth about refugees, cultural misunderstanding, discrimination and racism. These factors prevent both communities to create wider interactions for better understanding between them. Without a positive cooperation from local community, it is difficult to succeed in settlement. All these main categories and areas of settlement issues repeatedly highlight a gap between refugee communities and local community. And a detachment between refugees and local systems is also visible. These gap and detachment practically become great barriers for a smooth integration and successful settlement of refugees in Australia. 1.3 Problem Analysis Based on our background research on the settlement of refugees in Australia, we developed our initial problem tree. It was used as a draft during expert consultations. Its insightfulness helped us finding missing pieces if information and guided us to further research. Obviously the gap between refugee communities and local community together with local systems directly or either indirectly poses challenges to almost every problem we identified. Therefore, we identified community isolation as our focal problem. Consultation with refugee experts who have refugee backgrounds as well as remarkable experience from working with refugees settling in Victoria, particularly in South East of Melbourne, gave us clear picture of current settlement issues. Some of the case studies based on City of Greater Dandenong showed us a multiple dimensions of already identified problems. Our finalized problem tree, after sorting out the problems, is given below. Public misunderstanding was identified a crucial factor to discrimination. Some of the politicians and media play an important role in creating a negative image for refugees. For an example, if a refugee is accused to be involved in a crime scene, they flash the news by highlighting the background of this particular refugee community and paint a red color on the rest of the community without considering the consequences. In fact, these sort of careless actions widen the gap between local community and refugee communities. It is evident to see lack of confidence among refugees mainly due to cultural alienation, past refugee experience, language incompetency and lack of knowledge of local context and local systems. Considering the cultural alienation, it is happened to be the outcome of difference between the unique characteristics of different cultures. Australians can be identified with individualism, lack of social cohesion and materialism whereas most of the refugee communities can be characterized as collectivist societies. Mutual understanding is necessary to promote better understanding of these differences and that requires considerably a long time. Among the effects of community isolation, identity crisis is something which has profound effect even on other effects either directly or indirectly. But, normally, it doesn’t get enough attention from settlement programs. Acculturation means that members of one cultural group adopt the beliefs and behaviors of a dominant group. It can be reciprocal but in case of refugees it is only one way. It causes loss of separate ethnic identification. People feel a sense of powerlessness as a result. Psychosocial repercussions heavily damage human personality. As a result, refugees look at perceived threats, it can be either real or even imagined, in their lives and recognize it may require resources we don’t have. It includes threats to their social status, social esteem, acceptance within the society and threat to their self-worth. In long time, all these effects create social discord which is not good for both local community and refugee communities. 1.4 Objective Analysis At the end of the objective analysis, we came up with positive results, but not for each of the identified problem statements. We left a question mark for racism as it can’t be directly addressed. Nobody is going to accept that they are racist. Therefore, we decided to better leave it alone in the objective tree and reduce its impact indirectly from promoting public understanding. Objective tree was adjusted with some rearrangements with optimistic conditions. Alternative analysis pointed out the ongoing programs and projects by AMES, state government and other service providers in the area of employment, housing, language, education and future promises to improve current refugee and humanitarian programs. At this point, it is important to acknowledge Community Guides Program, Luv-A-Duck project and Ucan3 Youth Program of AMES as well as its support to social enterprises such as Sorghum Sisters, Cultural Cooks and Global Cafà ©, and support for community initiatives. We noticed lack of attention on the refugees’ rights and their cultural validity. It was finally decided to promote community engagement by increasing the level of confidence among refugees and creating social embrace with public understanding. Community Engagement will create cultural validity for refugee communities by providing them greater opportunities for social networking. Mutual understanding between local community and refugee communities would have positive impact in long-term and that would consequently bring social harmony in the City of Greater Dandenong.

Photograph of the Demolition of the Crystal Palace, 1936 Essay

Photograph of the Demolition of the Crystal Palace, 1936 The Crystal Palace designed by Joseph Paxton stood for eighty-five years. It succumbed to fire "at six o'clock on the evening of 30th November 1936" (Beaver, 141). A fire was discovered in the staff lavatory, and within minutes the whole structure was ablaze. The spectacular building was engulfed in fire as it dissolved into just a skeleton of its former structure. Paxton used innovative methods of construction on the Crystal Palace, greatly influenced by the bridge and train shed construction of the day. With the introduction of iron elements, architects could be more creative, and more "modern" with their designs, straying from classical precedents. Paxton, with engineers Fox and Henderson, "created what amounted to a giant greenhouse, which was fabricated of little more then panes of glass and iron-and-wood framework" (Hyman & Trachtenberg, 482). It was predicted that the building would require a staggering amount of new materials: "900,000 square feet of glass," "3,300 iron columns; 2,224 girders; and 205 miles of sashbars" (Hobhouse, 39). The use of standardized, prefabricated materials helped to revolutionize architectural methods, prompting other designers to follow Paxton's lead. The Galerie des Machines and the Eiffel Tower built for the Paris 1889 Fair both implemented the light, airy method of iron construction. The grand exhibition building was constructed out of prefabricated elements that were easily erected and could be disassembled when the exhibition was over. The Crystal Palace was first built in Hyde Park, the site of the Great Exhibition of 1851, where it stood for one year. After the fair, it was decided that the building would be taken down and... ...ew of the sculptures added by Paxton and Cole to decorate the park (Beaver, 146). Thanks to personal photographs and private collections such as that of the University of Maryland we are able to get a glimpse of an architectural and social icon. Works Cited Beaver, Patrick. The Crystal Palace, 1851-1936: a portrait of Victorian enterprise. London, Hugh Evelyn Ltd., 1970. Cowper, Charles. The building erected in Hyde Park for the Great Exhibition of the Works of Industry of All Nations, 1851. London: Victoria and Albert Museum. 1972. Hobhouse, Christopher. 1851 and the Crystal Palace; being an account of the Great Exhibition and its contents; of Sir Joseph Paxton; and the erection, the subsequent history and the destruction of his masterpiece. London, Murray, 1950. Hyman, Isabelle; Trachtenberg, Marvin. Architecture. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Inc. 1986.

Free Process Essays - How to Prepare a Supreme Cafe Latte :: Expository Process Essays

How to Prepare a Supreme Cafe Latte Making espresso, cappuccino, cafe latte or plain coffee is an art form. It takes a skilled artist to make coffee worth appreciating. Many people cannot make coffee. The methods for brewing coffee may differ, but the coffee must be satisfying. There are many factors that decide whether a the coffee is satisfactory. I don't think it matters whether the coffee is the lowly drip brew or sophisticated cappuccino. It takes an accomplished craftsman to make it. I've had enough cups of lousy coffee to conclude that coffee making is an art. Making drip coffee may seem simple enough, but haven't you had coffee from a gas station? It never fails to have a bitter, burnt taste; usually there's non-dairy creamer and a lingering smell of ancient coffee grinds. The more complex cappuccino and latte are harder to master. The more elements involved, the more likely different elements can go wrong. With the spate of chi-chi coffee houses and euro-restaurants, lattes are more popular than ever in the U.S. Every coffee shop and restaurant thinks it can serve a latte. I've even seen coffee stands in drugstores. Unfortunately, these sources rarely have coffee worth drinking. A simple cup of drip coffee can be mastered by any novice. It's to coffee making what coloring in the lines is to art, a small challenge. It take a true coffee connoisseur to master the espresso or latte. I am proud to be such a connoisseur. Learning to make a proper cup of coffee is akin to an art apprentice learning under a great painter. You slowly work your way up. I learned from my mother. I started making coffee with "Taster's Choice" coffee crystals. I moved on to drip coffee, until graduating to the espresso machine. While it takes training and practice to make a latte, I think it also requires a certain talent. I don't mean to toot my own horn, but most people who've had one of my lattes agree that mine are the best. I can make cappuccino and espressos, but cafe lattes are by far the most popular in my house.

Health Education Model for Smoking Cessation

Smoking continues to be one of the largest preventable causes of death in the United States, and it is increasing among young females and adolescents. One in five will die from lung cancer, chronic obstructive lung disease, or heart disease. It should be the goal of all health care professionals to encourage smoking cessation to assist in reducing the number of smoke-related diseases and/or fatalities (Max, Hai-Yen, & Yangling, 2012). A Model for Health EducationAn excellent model for education with regards to smoking cessation is the Health Belief Model (HBM). The HBM was established in the 1950s, it is the oldest and most popular model used in nursing education and preventative health behaviors. Constructs are theories from behavior and social sciences, and the HBM is made up of six constructs; perceived susceptibility, perceived severity, perceived benefit, perceived barriers, cues to action, and self-efficacy (Sharma & Romas, 2012). Perceived susceptibility is the belief a person has on the chances they will acquire a disease or illness from indulging in a certain behavior.Perceived severity is the belief a person has on the extent of harm resulting from a certain behavior. Perceived benefit is the person belief in the advantages of the interventions suggested to reduce the changes of acquiring the illness/disease. Perceived barriers is the belief concerning the financial cost associated with following the perceived benefits. Cues to action are the forces that drive the person to make a change. Self-efficacy is the confidence a person has to change their behavior (Costello, Logel, Fong, Zanna, & McDonald, 2102). Health Behavior for ChangeSmoking has long been one of the most dangerous ways for people to relieve stress, try to look cool, or smoke because others do it. More than 440,000 deaths occur annually as a result of smoking. Not only are the actual smokers affected, but studies on smoking reveals an increase in lung cancer patients among non-smokers as a result of second-hand smoke. More than 50 percent of children are exposed to cigarette smoke worldwide, which can cause respiratory problems, ear infections, and Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) (American Lung Association, 2013).Justification for ModelChoiceThe Health Belief Model (HBM) is a good model to use for smoking cessation. The HBM can be used to focus the message on overcoming the barriers to quit and the overwhelming benefits. Some of the immediate benefits to quit smoking include; blood pressure returns to normal, decreased carbon monoxide levels, improved respiratory function, and circulation improvement. These benefits pertain to the actual smoker and those who inhale second hand smoke (â€Å"American cancer society,† 2006). Smokers are more likely to quit if they believe the following; they could acquire a smoking related disease, know someone who acquired a smoking related disease, believe they can quit, or believe that quitting outweighs the benefit of s moking (Costello, Logel, Fong, Zanna, & McDonald, 2102).ConclusionThere are no benefits to smoking, but those who are addicted to nicotine may beg to differ. Some teens and adults use smoking as a lifestyle coping tool; to relieve stress, relax, calm nerves, look mature, or use it as a conversation centerpiece. Regardless of the reason a person smokes the outcome is still the same, addiction and damage to the body or possible death. Part of a health care professional’s responsibility is to educate people on the dangers of addictions and encourage them to quit in addition to providing the necessary resources. Over the many years, various models have been developed to help nurses target certain health behaviors and help adjust or change them.The outcome may not always be a positive result, but the only thing one can do is use the tools already created to help alter a person’s perception of their behavior/habit. There may be some who do not try to quit, some may attempt t o quit but fail, and some may not see the dangers of a habit that makes them feel good. At the end of the day it is up to the person to accept the help/education and put it to use.

Parenting: a Balancing Act

Parenting: A Balancing Act â€Å"You’re not doing well enough! † Just how many times have children heard this from their parents? After all, parents do expect their children to do well in life, but sometimes those expectations could place too much of a burden on their children. Most parents worry about the â€Å"Big C†, college, which is shown through many of their expectations on their child’s academics, extra-curriculum’s, and sometimes future careers. A study in 2007 by the Childs Trend Databank shows that 69. 7% parents expected their children from 6th to 12th grade to receive a Bachelor’s degree or higher.Easier said than done right? Of course, the parent might fill their child’s schedule with dozens of E. C’s and A. P classes to make them stand out in the college applications, but that does not mean they will automatically get into any university or college. Like in the article, â€Å"Taming the Overachieving Monster†, the composer, Callie Schweitzer, writes: â€Å"Does being class president, captain of the track team, and sole organizer of the school's clothing drive add up to a top college acceptance? No. All it guarantees is stress. † Parenting requires balance between high and low expectations, a task not to be taken lightly.Thus, parents need to learn how to limit their own expectations of their children due to the stress it causes on them. In some cases, the parents put their children in many after-school programs and encourage them to do more if they want to. Of course, not all children look forward to doing so much and simply want to hang around with their friends or go out shopping. However, this sometimes leads to conflict between parent and child. â€Å"I only want to relax in my room and talk on Facebook and have fun, but my mom yells at me to go do more practice work for the SAT’s. says Anonymous 1, a student. The SAT’s, or the super important test for colleg e, is one of the few tests that is required by colleges in order to apply to them. Out of a maximum 2400 points, parents expect their children to score high in order for them to get into a good college, but to get a high score in the SATs is not exactly the easiest task to do. Some parents expect 2400, some expect 2000 and up, but it still adds more stress to their child when their already grueling schedule is weighted down even more with SAT preparatory classes.Back in the article, â€Å"Taming the Overachieving Monster†, Callie Schweitzer states, â€Å"It's natural to want your child to succeed, but what, exactly, qualifies as achievement? Too many of today's parents define it as a 2400 on the SATs*, a schedule full of AP classes, and extracurricular activities that take up every afternoon of the school week. Parents often dismiss the reality of the hours of homework this kind of academic load entails†. And it is quite true; some parents do often dismiss the amount o f workload coming from all these academic loads.In a clear sense, parents need to get rid of college rankings or reputations because any college can give their children a good education despite the rank, if their children actually work hard and try. Just because a college or university is ranked high does not mean that going to any college that is not ranked high nor has a great reputation like the â€Å"Ivy Leagues† will not give a good education. After all, even if you have a degree from a â€Å"prestigious† college, there is no guarantee that employers will fight for you or you getting instant jobs the moment you step out.Like in the article, â€Å"Taming the Overachieving Monster,† Callie Schweitzer, quotes, Alexandra Robbins, best-selling author of The Overachievers: The Secret Lives of Driven Kids. Robbins writes,†Ã¢â‚¬â„¢Forget the name-brands, forget the reputations in your area and social circles, and for goodness sake, throw the college rankings in the trash. ’† Getting a job takes your own effort and time, not solely on getting a degree from a â€Å"super-ranked college†. â€Å"My parents expect me to get into the UC’s only and not any State schools or City Colleges,† replies Anonymous 5, yet another student worried about their future paths.To be honest, it really is up to the student to choose which college he or she wants to go to and not the parent deciding which college for them. True, any parents can expect their child to do well in school and life, but even that can lead to too much of a burden upon their child. It must be taken into account that not all students enjoy studying for school or even actually going to school. After all, everyone is different, but that is not really taken into account when it comes to schooling or work.As in many cases, there are good and bad sides to expectations from parents. In some cases, it can be harmful or stressful for the student and sometimes he lpful. â€Å"My mom expects a lot out of me and I do find it wearing at times, but I do believe that it helps me work harder in school,† informs Anonymous 2, another student. Sometimes, children with high expectations from parents feel the urge to do well in sports or school to meet their parent’s expectations. Of course, to set yourself high and fail lets you learn from your mistakes and reevaluate your pathway from that.High expectations also means that kids may not be as lazy or lax about doing well in life because setting a goal in life, whether it be made by the parent or child, does help lead the way in the future. Some students have greater confidence for themselves because they know that they can achieve high expectations from their parents as well as goals. In the article, â€Å"Debate: Parental Expectations†, the writer, Lu Shizhen, writes, â€Å"Parental expectations can motivate children to build a strong mind and encourage them to achieve their bes t academic performance.Therefore, there is nothing wrong with parents who pin expectations on the development of their children. However, such parental expectations should be realistic. † Unfortunately, planning to aim high is a good idea, but making realistic goals to achieve is not the easiest thing to do. Also, in some cases, parents might not recognize the successes of their children managing to achieve the expectations that the parents have set, which winds up leaving the child not enjoying to succeed or have major goals. â€Å"I do what my mom expects me to do all the time, but most of the time, my mom gives me even harder things to accomplish,† says Anonymous 3.Not all kids feel like doing every last thing parents throw at them and parents need to learn how to respect that. After all, some parents do not see how their expectations stress their children out more than it actually helps them. Eventually the stress can be too much and might crack in your child droppi ng of many kinds. Parents should not expect their child to live up to every expectation, because everyone has different wants, likes, personalities, hates, etc. Just like in the article, â€Å"Why Can't Johnny Jump Tall Buildings? , the composer Alan Kazdin tells us, â€Å"Just remember, as you go about it, that it's only human for parents to tend to expect that our children can do more than they can really do. Even slight adjustments of your expectations to compensate for that tendency—a little more emphasis on shaping, a little more patience, a little reflection on what's really important to you as a parent and what behaviors can be left to disappear or develop on their own—can produce surprisingly excellent results. † Parents expect a lot out of their children because they truly want the best from them, but often times it can go too far.Many parents do not want their children to follow their path, especially if their path was filled with difficulty and probl ems that they do not want their children to face, so they want to see them do better and have a life without any of the hardship their parents have faced. However, some parents force their children to do extra work in order for them not to face the problems they had and not everyone likes doing extra work. â€Å"Well, it's true that I want my kids to achieve far in life, but I also know that I probably sometimes do a bit too much†, says Anonymous 5, a mother of 3.After all, parent's expectations come from their care, but even that could be too much for their child. Of course, parents would not mind their kids to get into â€Å"name brand, great reputation colleges†, but that would be up to the child. † I do believe that my parents want me to achieve well in life and all, but they sometimes annoy me to no end. † says Anonymous 6, a student, â€Å"I really hate it when I'm doing something I, myself, want to do, but then my parents yell at me to do something they want me to do. Their Intentions are good, but they need to know about my own feelings when it comes to their expectations. Teenagers have a lot to say about a wide range of topics, but when it comes to their parents it can be endless. After all, the looming threat of college in the typical teenager's life causes anxiety for both the teen and parent. Unfortunately, that anxiety could lead to a split in the parent and child relationship. â€Å"Sometimes their expectations are too much for me to do. I do one good thing, but they view more of the bad things I do,† says Anonymous 4, another student, â€Å"It's hard to achieve what they want. I understand them, but I wish they understood me more as well.Their expectations affect my life both in a good way and bad way since it makes me work harder, but leads to me getting a lot of stress and frustrations. † After all, do parents truly understand their children's feelings? Perhaps not. Due to the anxiety to see their chil dren get into college and doing well in their life, some parents do not take the teenager's feelings into consideration. â€Å"They do expect me to do well in school, and to achieve my goals, but not to do anything I want,† says Anonymous 5, â€Å"Sure, they want me to do what I really want to pursue and become in life, but at times they can be confusing to me. Of course, not all parents expect so much out of their children, but not to the point where expectations are completely lacking. â€Å"My mom, she doesn't expect me to be perfect, with great grades, 4. 0's, or anything, so we get along fine. I do not find that affects my life that much, although my siblings influence my good grades in school, because I do not want to follow what they did in their lives. Expectations have its ups and downs, but everyone views it differently. â€Å"My mom expects me to get 4. 0's and to get as many E. A's as possible, which I do not find likable.Many times, we argue over the stress of my achieving well and the threat of college, but it usually never ends well. I believe that my life is more stressed and frustrated than before and I am getting tired of it,† says Anonymous 6. In the end, parents definitely need to at least try to see if their children are becoming stressed out trying to pass their expectations. However, are expectations from parents really needed? Truthfully, expectations can help improve the mind set of students and their own expectations of doing well for themselves. A lack of expectations might lead to a drop in schoolwork and an allowance of bad grades.Students with uncaring parents might wind up with themselves having low expectations on grades what they expect in life from their parents. Some students believe that their parent's expectations really are not needed in their already stressed lives. â€Å"Well, I could just put my parent’s voices onto a tape recorder and that would be good enough. I hate how they want me to do all this stuff when I just want to do things I really want to do. I find the expectations unneeded in my life because they just add more stress in my life and annoy me to no end,† states Anonymous 1.This came from a friend who particularly has a bad relationship with his parents. Some students think that their parent's expectations help them, but dislike them at the same time. â€Å"I think that my parent's expectations help me believe that I can do well and it makes me work harder, but sometimes it becomes too much. Because if I do well, my parents expect me to even better and even if I do well in one spot, they look at a bad spot, which is frustrating,† tells Anonymous 4. â€Å"I do think that my parent’s expectations help me make goals in my life, but I hate it.At first, I do think they suck, but I do realize that expectations from my parents are not that bad, it is just that they sometimes expect too much out of me and ticks me off. † says Anonymous 6. Fro m this, parent's expectations do have an impact on their children's lives both negatively and positively. In the end, some students wish to deal with their parent's expectations, but do not know how to do so. In Elizabeth Ryan's, Straight Talk About Parents, she recommends talking to your parents on the â€Å"rules† or â€Å"chores† you have to do and why they bother you.After all, talking aloud with your parents about your problems with their expectations is definitely a start to compromising. She says that if you want to handle these problems, then start by asking yourself: What are the rules in my family? What are the rules do I think are clear to everyone? Which rules do I think are not clear to everyone? What can I do to get the unclear rules to be clearer? Which rules do I think are fair? Which rules do I think are unfair or unnecessary? Which rule am I the most upset about? Think about your parent’s feelings and not just your own, they might only just wan t the best out of you.Try to make your parents listen to your reasons on why they are â€Å"bad† with their expectations. Instead of always disagreeing and arguing, try to find things to agree on instead of nagging each other. Take note of your own feelings as well as your parents because they might just be taking note of your well-being or future. In case you may not feel like talking to your parents, why not talk to a good friend? Friends should always be there for each other, especially in times of hardship. Talk to your friend about your problems and what they think you should do. If not, just let it out.Yes, crying is human nature and a way of releasing emotion instead of bottling it up. If you’re mad you can just punch the stuffing out of your pillow, you just might find that you feel better after beating your anger out. Hopefully, parents might one day learn how to balance their expectations to not be too much or too little. It might take a while because, after all, parenting is quite the balancing act. Anonymous 1. Personal interview. 25 Jan. 2012. Anonymous 2. Personal interview. 25 Jan. 2012. Anonymous 3. Personal interview. 25 Jan. 2012. Anonymous 4. Personal interview. 25 Jan. 2012.Anonymous 5. Personal interview. 25 Jan. 2012. Anonymous 6. Personal interview. 26 Jan. 2012. Anonymous 7. Personal interview. 26 Jan. 2012. Kazdin, Alan. â€Å"Why Can't Johnny Jump Tall Buildings? † Slate. The Slate Group,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  2012. Web. 29 Jan. 2012. . â€Å"Percentage of Children in Grades 6-12 Whose Parents Expect Them To Receive a Bachelor's Degree or Higher, 2003 and 2007. † Chart. N. p. : Child Trends DataBank, 2007. Childs Trends DataBank. Web. 1 Feb. 2012. . Ryan, Elizabeth A. Straight Talk About Parents. New York: New York Facts On File, 1989. Print. Schweitzer, Callie. â€Å"Taming the Overachieving Monster. â€Å"Parenting Teens Online. iFOS Publishing and Parenting Teens Network. , Jan. 2008. Web. 27 Jan. 2012. . Shizhen, Lu. â€Å"Debate: Parental Expectations. † China Daily. China Daily,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  1995-2012. Web. 29 Jan. 2012. .